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Smokers with hypertension showed reduced enrichment of beneficial taxa such as Phycisphaera and Clostridium asparagiforme , alongside altered microbial functions, highlighting the detrimental impact of smoking on gut health and its potential role in cardiovascular risk [117]

We collected a total of 196 swab samples from three different oral sites of healthy and OSCC individuals

To explore this, future studies should incorporate advanced metabolomics techniques to profile microbial metabolites produced in response to smoking

For several decades, weve seen little or no change in smoking rates among these groups, even while the smoking rate has declined in the general population

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